1945 - End of World War II
When: September 2, 1945
What: Among the divisions of land and resources at the end of World War II was the question of who would receive the intelligence and knowledge of hundreds of German scientists and engineers. In early 1943, faced with unfavorable war conditions and the possibility of losing control over a large portion of the Nazi empire to the Allies and the Red Army, Germany began to remove its top engineers and technicians from the war front and placing them in government laboratories and facilities to work towards the development of bigger and badder military weaponry and defense. The Osenberg List, a list of the names of Germany's top academic and scientific human assets, was leaked and relayed to U.S. Intelligence near the end of the war. At the war's end, the United States resolved to round up and imprison these men and, ultimately, bring them to the united States. Known as Operation Paperclip, the men were given new, non-Nazi identities and made to work for the American government. Under Germany, they had designed and built weapons, including missiles, bombs, and rockets. The United States stepped in and took possession of the German scientists for their immensely valuable knowledge and to prevent the Soviet Union from gaining the same dangerous and precious information regarding rockets and weaponry. The Soviet Union, however, also played a part in extracting German scientific expertise for their own benefit - Operation Osoaviakhim essentially transplanted German research facilities and equipment, along with the rockets and German engineers associated with them, into the Soviet Union. Originally intended to fulfill the Allied agreement of dissolving German military installations, the Soviets soon found that the Germans brought significant and extremely valuable knowledge to the table.
Why: Operations Paperclip and Osoaviakhim were born at the same time as the beginning of the escalation of the Cold War. World War II had left both sides - the United States and the Soviet Union - equally distrustful and secretive. The United States wanted the expertise of German scientists just as much as it didn't want the Soviets to have it - and, arguably, the latter was their real intent. So when the Soviet Union found German rocket and missile knowledge under its command, it was going to use every drop of it. The presence of German scientists jumpstarted the Russian missile and satellite programs, as it did the same programs in the United States. Missiles such as the R-7 Semyorka, which was eventually used to launch Sputnik 1 into space, were built largely on a foundation of German research from both World War II and under Soviet command, and the missile arms race which occurred after World War II as a result of both the war itself and German scientific contribution eventually led to the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles, rockets, and, finally, satellites. For example, the V-2 missile, the world's first long-range rocket, was duplicated by the Soviets as the R-1 missile - the first "Soviet" missile - and later heavily built upon by Soviet engineers to create the R-2 and R-5 missiles.
What: Among the divisions of land and resources at the end of World War II was the question of who would receive the intelligence and knowledge of hundreds of German scientists and engineers. In early 1943, faced with unfavorable war conditions and the possibility of losing control over a large portion of the Nazi empire to the Allies and the Red Army, Germany began to remove its top engineers and technicians from the war front and placing them in government laboratories and facilities to work towards the development of bigger and badder military weaponry and defense. The Osenberg List, a list of the names of Germany's top academic and scientific human assets, was leaked and relayed to U.S. Intelligence near the end of the war. At the war's end, the United States resolved to round up and imprison these men and, ultimately, bring them to the united States. Known as Operation Paperclip, the men were given new, non-Nazi identities and made to work for the American government. Under Germany, they had designed and built weapons, including missiles, bombs, and rockets. The United States stepped in and took possession of the German scientists for their immensely valuable knowledge and to prevent the Soviet Union from gaining the same dangerous and precious information regarding rockets and weaponry. The Soviet Union, however, also played a part in extracting German scientific expertise for their own benefit - Operation Osoaviakhim essentially transplanted German research facilities and equipment, along with the rockets and German engineers associated with them, into the Soviet Union. Originally intended to fulfill the Allied agreement of dissolving German military installations, the Soviets soon found that the Germans brought significant and extremely valuable knowledge to the table.
Why: Operations Paperclip and Osoaviakhim were born at the same time as the beginning of the escalation of the Cold War. World War II had left both sides - the United States and the Soviet Union - equally distrustful and secretive. The United States wanted the expertise of German scientists just as much as it didn't want the Soviets to have it - and, arguably, the latter was their real intent. So when the Soviet Union found German rocket and missile knowledge under its command, it was going to use every drop of it. The presence of German scientists jumpstarted the Russian missile and satellite programs, as it did the same programs in the United States. Missiles such as the R-7 Semyorka, which was eventually used to launch Sputnik 1 into space, were built largely on a foundation of German research from both World War II and under Soviet command, and the missile arms race which occurred after World War II as a result of both the war itself and German scientific contribution eventually led to the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles, rockets, and, finally, satellites. For example, the V-2 missile, the world's first long-range rocket, was duplicated by the Soviets as the R-1 missile - the first "Soviet" missile - and later heavily built upon by Soviet engineers to create the R-2 and R-5 missiles.
1947 - The Cold War
When: 1947 to 1991
What: The Cold War was an international period where two spheres of influence of the world, led mainly by the world powers of the United States and the Soviet Union, were in competition, conflict, and hostility. The Cold War was not a war, persay, but rather a period of dangerous rivalry between the two sides. On one hand, there was the United States, which was a democratic, capitalist nation. On the other, there was the communist Soviet Union, which had left World War II feeling betrayed, cheated, and defensive against the other Allies. Both nations practiced a philosophy of "missionary" politics, where they both wishes to increase their respective spheres of influence and spread their political ideology throughout the world - for the United States, this was democracy, and for the Soviets, this was communism. Tensions first flared during World War II, when the United States repeatedly denied aid to the Soviet Union in favor of aiding Britain. This was in addition to the United States not recognizing the Soviet Union's new government until 1933 and generally being distrustful and suspicious of Soviet movements and intent. After World War II, with no common enemy, both countries became increasingly hostile. The Soviet Union wished only to protect itself and its interests from further invasion - it had received the brunt of the damage from the war - and expressed an interest in maintaining control over several "satellite states" bordering itself and Europe. The United States, always a strong believer in having an "open world," responded negatively, eventually resulting in the iron curtain descending over Europe and the division of Germany and Berlin. The War escalated quickly when the Soviet Union refused to comply with U.S. wishes in the middle east, and in 1946, military cooperation between the two countries officially ceased. The subsequent rearming of the United States and the declaration of the Truman Doctrine only served to further antagonize the Soviets.
Why: In 1949, the United States received word that the Soviet Union had detonated its first atomic bomb, years before American scientists had predicted it would be able to do so. The years following were a period of uncertainty and hostility on both sides. Both nations had destructive weapons. Both nations had the ability to use them. The key was to now develop stronger, faster, and stealthier military weaponry and strategy. Both nations began to work feverishly to gain the upper technological hand, which ultimately culminated in research and development that led to the Soviets launching the first artificial satellite.
What: The Cold War was an international period where two spheres of influence of the world, led mainly by the world powers of the United States and the Soviet Union, were in competition, conflict, and hostility. The Cold War was not a war, persay, but rather a period of dangerous rivalry between the two sides. On one hand, there was the United States, which was a democratic, capitalist nation. On the other, there was the communist Soviet Union, which had left World War II feeling betrayed, cheated, and defensive against the other Allies. Both nations practiced a philosophy of "missionary" politics, where they both wishes to increase their respective spheres of influence and spread their political ideology throughout the world - for the United States, this was democracy, and for the Soviets, this was communism. Tensions first flared during World War II, when the United States repeatedly denied aid to the Soviet Union in favor of aiding Britain. This was in addition to the United States not recognizing the Soviet Union's new government until 1933 and generally being distrustful and suspicious of Soviet movements and intent. After World War II, with no common enemy, both countries became increasingly hostile. The Soviet Union wished only to protect itself and its interests from further invasion - it had received the brunt of the damage from the war - and expressed an interest in maintaining control over several "satellite states" bordering itself and Europe. The United States, always a strong believer in having an "open world," responded negatively, eventually resulting in the iron curtain descending over Europe and the division of Germany and Berlin. The War escalated quickly when the Soviet Union refused to comply with U.S. wishes in the middle east, and in 1946, military cooperation between the two countries officially ceased. The subsequent rearming of the United States and the declaration of the Truman Doctrine only served to further antagonize the Soviets.
Why: In 1949, the United States received word that the Soviet Union had detonated its first atomic bomb, years before American scientists had predicted it would be able to do so. The years following were a period of uncertainty and hostility on both sides. Both nations had destructive weapons. Both nations had the ability to use them. The key was to now develop stronger, faster, and stealthier military weaponry and strategy. Both nations began to work feverishly to gain the upper technological hand, which ultimately culminated in research and development that led to the Soviets launching the first artificial satellite.
1957 - International Geophysical Year
When: July 1, 1957 to December 31, 1958
What: The International Geophysical Year marked a period of relative peace and cooperation among the nations of the world. The Cold War had left the "western" and "eastern" halves isolated and secretive in their scientific development, so a single year of international scientific and technological collaboration was declared. Each country involved was to contribute a scientific discovery or achievement in a spirit of cooperation and goodwill. In accordance to the IGY, American President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced on July 29, 1955 that the United States would be launching an artificial satellite as its contribution - the first of its kind. Little did he know that, about half a year earlier, lead Soviet rocket engineer Sergei Korolev had proposed his own nation's launching of an artificial satellite. Korolev and his contemporaries argued that the advancement of satellite technology was key in maintaining the upper hand in rocket equipment and weaponry.
Why: Both the Soviet Union and the United States intended to launch artificial satellites as their contributions for the International Geophysical Year. The competition between the two nations was already long present - the world was in the midst of the Cold War - but two similar goals only heightened their rivalry. If the launch of Sputnik 1 marked the birth of the space race, the International Geophysical Year was its conception. Both countries were competing to build the first artificial satellite. Of course, it is likely that the Soviet Union would have begun work on a satellite regardless of this event of international "collaboration," but it is clear that the IGY - as well as the United States' public declaration of their intent to launch their own satellite, knowing full well that the Soviets had similar interests - only speeded up this process.
What: The International Geophysical Year marked a period of relative peace and cooperation among the nations of the world. The Cold War had left the "western" and "eastern" halves isolated and secretive in their scientific development, so a single year of international scientific and technological collaboration was declared. Each country involved was to contribute a scientific discovery or achievement in a spirit of cooperation and goodwill. In accordance to the IGY, American President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced on July 29, 1955 that the United States would be launching an artificial satellite as its contribution - the first of its kind. Little did he know that, about half a year earlier, lead Soviet rocket engineer Sergei Korolev had proposed his own nation's launching of an artificial satellite. Korolev and his contemporaries argued that the advancement of satellite technology was key in maintaining the upper hand in rocket equipment and weaponry.
Why: Both the Soviet Union and the United States intended to launch artificial satellites as their contributions for the International Geophysical Year. The competition between the two nations was already long present - the world was in the midst of the Cold War - but two similar goals only heightened their rivalry. If the launch of Sputnik 1 marked the birth of the space race, the International Geophysical Year was its conception. Both countries were competing to build the first artificial satellite. Of course, it is likely that the Soviet Union would have begun work on a satellite regardless of this event of international "collaboration," but it is clear that the IGY - as well as the United States' public declaration of their intent to launch their own satellite, knowing full well that the Soviets had similar interests - only speeded up this process.
1957 - Sputnik 1
When: October 4, 1957
What: After months of building upon previous rocket designs, both German and Soviet, the Soviet Union was ready to launch the first successful artificial satellite in history. A 23 in. metal sphere with four external radio antennae, it was simple and virtually useless, but it worked. Sputnik 1 orbited the earth for three months in elliptical low orbit before burning up in the atmosphere - but not before causing international turmoil, especially in the United States. The satellite released intermittent radio impulses that could be heard as beeping on radio frequencies and was detectable from the ground. In addition, Sputnik 1 orbited low enough that it was visible to the naked eye.
Why: Sputnik 1 was the first man-made object to orbit the earth. It was easily viewed and easily heard - but this only served to cause panic among the citizens of the western world, particularly the United States. Sputnik was launched in the midst of the Cold War. Americans lived in constant fear of nuclear attack from the Soviet Union and those countries under its influence. Solace, however, was found in the fact that the Soviet Union lay an ocean away. Unless the Soviets had an outpost in the New World - as it did in Cuba in the next decade - there was no immediate danger to American lives or prosperity. Sputnik 1 changed all of that. It was launched much, much earlier than American scientists and experts had predicted. It was a demonstration of true Soviet rocket power and scientific advancement, a result of years cultivating and testing a rocket and missile program which was kickstarted by the end of World War II. The United States' Project Vanguard was no match for the Soviets' rapidly advancing space accomplishments. The launch of Sputnik 1 was a warning as much as it was an accomplishment. Watching Sputnik 1 beep ominously across the night sky invoked fears in the hearts of every American. What was next? Spy satellites? Missiles? Now, the Soviet Union had made it clear that they had access to an ICBM - an intercontinental ballistic missile - that could destroy the United States. The American perception that the United States was the greatest and most technologically advanced nation in the world was shattered, initiating a nationwide movement for better military defense, education, and space exploration programs to fight against the Sputnik-induced panic.
What: After months of building upon previous rocket designs, both German and Soviet, the Soviet Union was ready to launch the first successful artificial satellite in history. A 23 in. metal sphere with four external radio antennae, it was simple and virtually useless, but it worked. Sputnik 1 orbited the earth for three months in elliptical low orbit before burning up in the atmosphere - but not before causing international turmoil, especially in the United States. The satellite released intermittent radio impulses that could be heard as beeping on radio frequencies and was detectable from the ground. In addition, Sputnik 1 orbited low enough that it was visible to the naked eye.
Why: Sputnik 1 was the first man-made object to orbit the earth. It was easily viewed and easily heard - but this only served to cause panic among the citizens of the western world, particularly the United States. Sputnik was launched in the midst of the Cold War. Americans lived in constant fear of nuclear attack from the Soviet Union and those countries under its influence. Solace, however, was found in the fact that the Soviet Union lay an ocean away. Unless the Soviets had an outpost in the New World - as it did in Cuba in the next decade - there was no immediate danger to American lives or prosperity. Sputnik 1 changed all of that. It was launched much, much earlier than American scientists and experts had predicted. It was a demonstration of true Soviet rocket power and scientific advancement, a result of years cultivating and testing a rocket and missile program which was kickstarted by the end of World War II. The United States' Project Vanguard was no match for the Soviets' rapidly advancing space accomplishments. The launch of Sputnik 1 was a warning as much as it was an accomplishment. Watching Sputnik 1 beep ominously across the night sky invoked fears in the hearts of every American. What was next? Spy satellites? Missiles? Now, the Soviet Union had made it clear that they had access to an ICBM - an intercontinental ballistic missile - that could destroy the United States. The American perception that the United States was the greatest and most technologically advanced nation in the world was shattered, initiating a nationwide movement for better military defense, education, and space exploration programs to fight against the Sputnik-induced panic.
1958 - National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
When: July 29, 1958
What: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was the first effort of the United States to facilitate American technological and scientific advancement in space in a way that was purely for peaceful and civilian purposes, as opposed to military. Prior to the creation of NASA, major space programs were run largely by military groups such as the United States Naval Research Laboratory which facilitated the failed Project Vanguard. NASA focused on various space programs and was responsible for the first manned missions to space, as well as the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo projects, the last of which eventually landed men on the moon.
Why: Prior to the creation of NASA, American space efforts had been largely centered on increasing military might and defense, focusing on rockets and missiles (as the Soviets did). After the launching of Sputnik 1, however, the United States decided to separate its military and scientific research in the name of competing directly with the Soviet Union in the space race. It had become clear that military effort alone was not enough to truly compete with Soviet technological advancement - in addition, the idea of having a joint space-military program could produce dangerous consequences under questions of air space and ownership of things not-of-this-earth, a conflict the United States would rather avoid during the Cold War.
What: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was the first effort of the United States to facilitate American technological and scientific advancement in space in a way that was purely for peaceful and civilian purposes, as opposed to military. Prior to the creation of NASA, major space programs were run largely by military groups such as the United States Naval Research Laboratory which facilitated the failed Project Vanguard. NASA focused on various space programs and was responsible for the first manned missions to space, as well as the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo projects, the last of which eventually landed men on the moon.
Why: Prior to the creation of NASA, American space efforts had been largely centered on increasing military might and defense, focusing on rockets and missiles (as the Soviets did). After the launching of Sputnik 1, however, the United States decided to separate its military and scientific research in the name of competing directly with the Soviet Union in the space race. It had become clear that military effort alone was not enough to truly compete with Soviet technological advancement - in addition, the idea of having a joint space-military program could produce dangerous consequences under questions of air space and ownership of things not-of-this-earth, a conflict the United States would rather avoid during the Cold War.
1958 - National Defense Education Act
When: September 2, 1958
What: The National Defense Education Act (NDEA) provided public funding to colleges and universities across the country in order to promote the advancement of education - specifically, science, mathematics, engineering, and technology education. The United States was experiencing a shortage of skilled mathematicians and engineers and the NDEA encouraged students to graduate high school and attend college to study these fields and, eventually, enter the industry. The money distributed by the NDEA was used to directly help students in the form of loans. It represented a huge movement to increase the quality of the education given to American students and to invest in the domestic skill-set and workforce.
Why: The NDEA was born almost directly from the launching of Sputnik 1. The national crisis sparked by Sputnik 1 almost a year earlier had brought the American education system into question. The idea was that the United States needed more skilled scientists and engineers to contribute to its own military and scientific development, as well as to make it significantly more competitive in the space race that was occurring in the Soviet satellite's wake.
What: The National Defense Education Act (NDEA) provided public funding to colleges and universities across the country in order to promote the advancement of education - specifically, science, mathematics, engineering, and technology education. The United States was experiencing a shortage of skilled mathematicians and engineers and the NDEA encouraged students to graduate high school and attend college to study these fields and, eventually, enter the industry. The money distributed by the NDEA was used to directly help students in the form of loans. It represented a huge movement to increase the quality of the education given to American students and to invest in the domestic skill-set and workforce.
Why: The NDEA was born almost directly from the launching of Sputnik 1. The national crisis sparked by Sputnik 1 almost a year earlier had brought the American education system into question. The idea was that the United States needed more skilled scientists and engineers to contribute to its own military and scientific development, as well as to make it significantly more competitive in the space race that was occurring in the Soviet satellite's wake.
1969 - Apollo 11
When: July 21, 1969
What: Apollo 11 was the legendary space mission in which two astronauts, Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, were the first human beings to set foot on the moon. The event was a historical and national landmark, as it signified the end of the space race initiated by Sputnik 1 and an American victory in a small battle of the Cold War.
Why: The moon landing was the result of a goal set by President John F. Kennedy that "this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important to the long-range exploration of space." After eight years, the United States achieved this milestone - more than ten years after the Soviet Union had launched Sputnik 1 and caused hysteria among the American people. Apollo 11 was a result of Sputnik 1 in many ways, but perhaps most significantly, it was a flight of the Apollo program, which was started and facilitated by NASA in an effort to surpass the Soviets in the space race of the Cold War. Sputnik 1 kickstarted a huge American initiative to promote science and space exploration in every way and as quickly as possible. It served as inspiration and motivation. It indirectly created programs and attitude that would eventually bring the United States to surpass Soviet technology and restored American confidence and scientific superiority. Before Sputnik 1, space was an impossible frontier, not worth the resources or the time in a Cold War world. After the artificial satellite became a reality, the United States was awoken to the benefits, both scientific and militaristic, of human advancement into space. The moon landing was a declaration of American military and scientific might and was the grand finale of the race to a frontier brought to the American conscience by a tiny Soviet satellite.
What: Apollo 11 was the legendary space mission in which two astronauts, Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, were the first human beings to set foot on the moon. The event was a historical and national landmark, as it signified the end of the space race initiated by Sputnik 1 and an American victory in a small battle of the Cold War.
Why: The moon landing was the result of a goal set by President John F. Kennedy that "this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important to the long-range exploration of space." After eight years, the United States achieved this milestone - more than ten years after the Soviet Union had launched Sputnik 1 and caused hysteria among the American people. Apollo 11 was a result of Sputnik 1 in many ways, but perhaps most significantly, it was a flight of the Apollo program, which was started and facilitated by NASA in an effort to surpass the Soviets in the space race of the Cold War. Sputnik 1 kickstarted a huge American initiative to promote science and space exploration in every way and as quickly as possible. It served as inspiration and motivation. It indirectly created programs and attitude that would eventually bring the United States to surpass Soviet technology and restored American confidence and scientific superiority. Before Sputnik 1, space was an impossible frontier, not worth the resources or the time in a Cold War world. After the artificial satellite became a reality, the United States was awoken to the benefits, both scientific and militaristic, of human advancement into space. The moon landing was a declaration of American military and scientific might and was the grand finale of the race to a frontier brought to the American conscience by a tiny Soviet satellite.